Thursday 23 April 2009

Korea dna RE :Korean Are 45% South East Asian (Warning:18+)



  • fake video's owner is ONE person
  • he got no sources and he gets his source from jpn blog(anti-korea, anti-chinese)
http://i41.tinypic.com/1z4h91x.jpg



http://i41.tinypic.com/mcg87l.jpgmy next school vacation is coming soon now im collection materials

(comments, pics, videos made by koreans for making videos to arouse

those stupid southern pigs. More korean haters will be produced^^)













http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_O2b_(Y-DNA)

Haplogroup O2b (Y-DNA)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
 This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources (ideally, using inline citations). Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2006)

Haplogroup O2b (SRY465, a.k.a. M176) is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup O2. Haplogroup O2b is found mainly in the northeastern parts of East Asia, from the Daur people of Inner Mongolia to the Japanese of Japan; however, haplogroup O2b has also been found at significant frequency among some populations of Southeast Asia, including those of Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam and from many people in Bangladesh.[1] This haplogroup is found with its highest frequency and diversity values among modern populations of Japan and Korea and is absent from most populations in China.[citation needed]

[edit] Subgroups

The phylogeography of Haplogroup O2b suggests a very ancient origin in Manchuria, followed by a long period of isolated evolution and population increase within the Korean Peninsula. Only the most ancient branches of this haplogroup, which are labeled as Haplogroup O2b*, have been detected among the indigenous populations of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria, and even then they are found only at very low frequencies. Haplogroup O2b* Y-chromosomes have been detected at a similarly low frequency among the Koreans, but Korean males display a very high frequency of a derived subclade, Haplogroup O2b1* (P49). In fact, Haplogroup O2b1* comes close to being the modal Y-chromosome haplogroup in Korea, occurring in approximately 35% of all Korean males.

A subclade of Haplogroup O2b1, namely Haplogroup O2b1a (47z), is found at a fairly high frequency among the Yamato people and Ryukyuan populations of Japan. Haplogroup O2b1a has been detected in approximately 22% of all males who speak a Japonic language, while it has not been found at all among the Ainu or Nivkhs of the northern extremes of the Japanese Archipelago. Based on the STR haplotype diversity within Haplogroup O2b1a, it has been estimated that this haplogroup began to experience a population expansion among the proto-Japanese of approximately 4,000 years ago, which makes it a good candidate for a marker of the intrusion of a Neolithic population of the prehistoric Korean Peninsula into the southwestern parts of the Japanese Archipelago. However, the parent haplogroup, O2b1*, is also found among Japanese, although at a relatively low frequency of approximately 4% to 7%, and the descendant haplogroup O2b1a is either completely absent from or found at only extremely low frequency (which could represent historical Japanese admixture) among samples of modern Koreans, which suggests the possibility that Haplogroup O2b1* might have colonized the Japanese Archipelago much earlier, with the subgroup O2b1a subsequently evolving within the proto-Japanese-Ryukyuan population of the western parts of the archipelago.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Han-Jun Jin, Kyoung-Don Kwak, Michael F. Hammer, Yutaka Nakahori, Toshikatsu Shinka, Ju-Won Lee, Feng Jin, Xuming Jia, Chris Tyler-Smith and Wook Kim, "Y-chromosomal DNA haplogroups and their implications for the dual origins of the Koreans," Human Genetics (2003)







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_O2_(Y-DNA)

Although Haplogroup O2 is not found so frequently in modern human populations as its brother clade, Haplogroup O3, it is notable for the peculiarities of its geographical distribution. Like all clades of Haplogroup O, Haplogroup O2 is found only among the males of modern Eastern Eurasian populations. However, unlike Haplogroup O3, which is shared in common by almost all populations of Eastern Eurasia as well as many populations of Oceania, Haplogroup O2 is generally found only among certain populations, such as the Austroasiatic peoples of India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, the Nicobarese of the Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean, and the Koreans, Japanese, and Tungusic peoples of Northeast Asia.

Besides its widespread and patchy distribution, Haplogroup O2 is also notable for the fact that it can be divided into two major subclades that show almost completely disjoint distribution. One of these subclades, Haplogroup O2a (M95), is found among some (mostly tribal) populations of South and Southeast Asia, as well as among the Khmers of Cambodia and the Balinese of Indonesia. There are also some reports that Haplogroup O2a may be associated with the so-called Negrito populations of mainland Southeast Asia, such as the Semang and the Senoi, but it is not clear whether this is their original Y-chromosome heritage or rather the result of incursion of Austroasiatic Y-chromosomes from the Khmers and related peoples who may have lent the Negritos their Austroasiatic languages in a manner similar to the Bantus' hypothesized lending of their languages and Haplogroup E Y-chromosomes to the pygmoid peoples of Africa, such as the Baka and Mbuti. The other major subclade, Haplogroup O2b (SRY465, M176), is found almost exclusively among the Koreans, the Japanese, and the Manchus.

The Northeast Asian Haplogroup O2b suggests a very interesting sort of relationship between the Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese peoples. Haplogroup O2b's parent haplogroup, Haplogroup O2*, appears to have been thinly spread throughout East Asia since prehistoric times. The derived Haplogroup O2b* (M176) is found at low frequency across the populations of the whole of Greater Manchuria, including the Tungusic, Korean, Japanese, and even the Daur people, who speak a Mongolic language that has traditionally been considered to have derived from an ancient dialect transitional between the Proto-Mongolic and Proto-Tungusic languages. One major subbranch, O2b1* (P49), is shared between the Korean and Japanese populations (with a significantly higher STR diversity among the Koreans), but its distribution does not reach the Tungusic or Daur peoples to the north. Finally, the most derived subbranch, Haplogroup O2b1a (47z), is essentially restricted to the Japanese population, although it has sporadically been detected in a few individuals who reside within the extent of the erstwhile Great Japanese Empire, in which cases it is believed to represent minor admixture from male Japanese soldiers or civilians into the local populations within the last several generations; patrilineal descent from a Japanese visitor or immigrant to some of these lands during earlier historical times is another possibility. This "nested" hierarchical and region-specific distributional pattern tends to suggest the following sequence of events:

1) The M176 mutation that defines the O2b Y-chromosome lineage first arises on an ancestral O2* chromosome belonging to a man who already resides within Greater Manchuria, or who at least already belongs to a specific "proto-Tungus-Korean" tribe.

2) Sometime after the proto-Koreans have branched off from the other populations of the Greater Manchurian region, the P49 mutation that defines Haplogroup O2b1* arises in a proto-Korean male, whose lineage becomes very successful and increases in number among the prehistoric proto-Korean population.

3) One regional subgroup of the proto-Koreans distinguishes itself from the others either culturally or by physically migrating away from their proto-Korean brethren. After the split from the greater proto-Korean population is complete, the 47z mutation that defines Haplogroup O2b1a occurs in a male of this now proto-Japanese population, who produces many male descendants and increases the frequency of the O2b1a lineage among the proto-Japanese. This very specific Haplogroup O2b1a lineage now occupies about 42.5% of the total of Haplogroup O lineages, or about 22.0% of all Y-chromosomes, among the modern Japanese, which probably reflects extreme hegemony of a certain close-knit clan in the history of the Japanese people.

In addition to suggesting a phylogenetic relationship between at least a subset of the ancestors of the Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese peoples, the distribution of Haplogroup O2b and its subbranches also argues strongly against any significant intermingling of any of these peoples during historical times.

The other major Northeast Asian Y-chromosome haplogroup, Haplogroup C3, is also found among the Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese peoples, as well as among the Mongolian peoples, Turkic peoples, and even the Ainu of Japan and the Na-Dené peoples of North America, but Haplogroup C3 displays a cline of frequency opposite to that of Haplogroup O2, to the effect that Haplogroup C3 is more frequent among the more northerly populations (Mongolian, Turkic, Northern Tungusic, Koryak, Nivkh, etc.), whereas Haplogroup O2 is more frequent among the more southerly populations (Southern Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese), and it is entirely absent from the Ainu and Na-Dené populations. The typically Sino-Tibetan and Southeast Asian Haplogroup O3 is also shared in common by most Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, Korean, and Japanese populations with various frequency and diversity values, which may be a genetic trace of a demic diffusion of Neolithic culture from China; however, the common occurrence at a low frequency throughout Northeast Asia of Y-chromosome Haplogroup D1 and several mtDNA haplogroups that are typical of Tibetans in addition to the Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian Haplogroup O3 may reflect some sort of relationship between the peoples of Northeast Asia and the peoples of Tibet rather than a major Neolithic or even more recent influence from China.


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Haplogroup O1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_O1_(Y-DNA)

Both Haplogroup O1 and Haplogroup O3 are prototypical Chinese patrilines, and they are believed to have first evolved sometime during the late Pleistocene (Upper Paleolithic) in Southeast Asia. Both O1 and O3 are commonly found among most modern populations of China and Southeast Asia. These two lineages are also presumed to be markers of the Austronesian expansion, probably originating from prehistoric Taiwan or the neighboring southeastern coast of China, when they are found among modern populations of Maritime Southeast Asia or Oceania.[1]

By far the strongest positive correlation between Haplogroup O1 and ethnolinguistic affiliation is that which is observed between this haplogroup and the Austronesians. It is interesting that the peak frequency of Haplogroup O1 is found among the aborigines of Taiwan, precisely the region from which linguists have hypothesized that the Austronesian language family originated. A slightly weaker correlation is observed between Haplogroup O1 and the Han Chinese populations of southern China, as well as between this haplogroup and the Kradai-speaking populations of southern China and Southeast Asia. The distribution of Daic languages in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of China has long been believed, for reasons of traditional linguistic geography, to reflect a recent invasion of Southeast Asia by Daic-speaking populations originating from southeastern China, and the somewhat elevated frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Daic populations, coupled with a high frequency of Haplogroup O2a, which is a genetic characteristic of the Austro-Asiatic peoples of Southeast Asia, suggests that the genetic signature of the Daic peoples' affinity with populations of southeastern China has been weakened due to extensive assimilation of the earlier Austro-Asiatic residents of the lands which the Daic peoples invaded. Also, it has been noted that Haplogroup O1 lineages among populations of continental Southeast Asia outside of China display a reduced level of diversity when compared with populations of South China and insular Southeast Asia, which may be evidence of a bottleneck associated with the westward migration and settlement of ancestral Daic-speaking populations in Indochina.

[edit] Distribution

Haplogroup O1 is generally found wherever its brother haplogroup, Haplogroup O3, is found, although at a frequency much lower than that of Haplogroup O3. A conspicuous exception to this general pattern is presented by the Taiwanese aboriginal populations, among whom Haplogroup O1 generally dominates Haplogroup O3 in frequency. The frequency of Haplogroup O1 has been found to be negatively correlated with latitude, so that, on average, it occurs at relatively higher frequency towards the more southerly parts of its range, but it never attains majority haplogroup status outside of Taiwan. Heightened frequencies of Haplogroup O1 have also been observed in samples of populations from the Philippines and the eastern-southeastern coast of China. This haplogroup is, however, conspicuously absent from populations of the Japanese Archipelago, which seems to preclude a close genetic relationship between the peoples of Japan and the Austronesians, despite many enthusiastic attempts to prove a common origin of the Japanese and Austronesian languages. Haplogroup O1a-M119 Y-chromosomes have also been found to occur at low frequency among various populations of Siberia, such as the Nivkhs (one of 17 sampled Y-chromosomes), Ulchi/Nanai (2/53), Yenisey Evenks (1/31), and especially the Buryats living in the Sayan-Baikal uplands of Irkutsk Oblast (6/13).[2]

[edit] Frequencies

The frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among various East Asian and Austronesian populations suggest a complex genetic history of the modern Han populations of southern China. Although Haplogroup O1 occurs only at an average frequency of approximately 4% among Han populations of northern China and peoples of southwestern China and Southeast Asia who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, the frequency of this haplogroup among the Han populations of southern China nearly quadruples to about 15%. It is particularly interesting that the frequency of Haplogroup O1 among the Southern Han has been found to be slightly greater than the arithmetic mean of the frequencies of Haplogroup O1 among the Northern Han and a pooled sample of Austronesian populations. This suggests that modern Southern Han populations possess a non-trivial number of male ancestors who were originally affiliated with some Austronesian-related culture, or who at least shared a genetic affinity with many of the ancestors of modern Austronesian peoples.

Subgroups

The subclades of Haplogroup O1 with their defining mutation, according to the 2006 ISOGG tree:

  • O1 (MSY2.2)
    • O1*
    • O1a (M119) Typical of Austronesians, southern Han Chinese, and Tai-Kadai peoples
      • O1a*
      • O1a1 (M101)
      • O1a2 (M50, M103, M110) Occurs among Austronesian peoples of Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Madagascar as well as among some populations of continental Southeast Asia

[edit] References

  1. ^ Karafet et al. (February 2005), "Balinese Y-Chromosome Perspective on the Peopling of Indonesia: Genetic Contributions from Pre-Neolithic Hunter-Gatherers, Austronesian Farmers, and Indian Traders", Human Biology, 77: 93-114.
  2. ^ The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell, Rem I. Sukernik, Yelena B. Starikovskaya, Bing Su, Li Jin, Theodore G. Schurr, Peter A. Underhill, and Douglas C. Wallace, American Journal of Human Genetics 70:192-206, 2002

3. Li et al. (2007) Y chromosomes of Prehistoric People along the Yangtze River[1]. Hum Genet 122:383-388.

4. Li et al. (2008) Paternal Genetic Affinity between Western Austronesians and Daic Populations[2]. BMC Evol Biol 8:146.

5. Li et al. (2008) Paternal Genetic Structure of Hainan Aborigines Isolated at the Entrance to East Asia[3]. PLoS ONE 3(5):e2168.



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Haplogroup O3 (Y-DNA)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_O3_(Y-DNA)

Origins

Origins

Haplogroup O3 is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup O. Some researchers believe that it first appeared in China approximately 10,000 years ago. However, others believe that the high internal diversity of Haplogroup O3 indicates a Late Pleistocene (Upper Paleolithic) origin in South China or Southeast Asia of the M122 mutation that defines the entire O3 clade, while the common presence among a wide variety of modern East and Southeast Asian nations of closely related haplotypes belonging to certain subclades of Haplogroup O3 is considered to point to a recent (e.g., Holocene) geographic dispersion of a certain subset of the ancient variation within Haplogroup O3. The spread of these particular subsets of Haplogroup O3 is conjectured to be closely associated with the sudden agricultural boom associated with rice farming.

The prehistoric peopling of East Asia by modern humans remains controversial with respect to early population migrations. In a systematic sampling and genetic screening of an East Asian–specific Y-chromosome haplogroup (O3-M122) in 2,332 individuals from diverse East Asian populations. Results indicate that the O3-M122 lineage is dominant in East Asian populations, with an average frequency of 44.3%. The microsatellite data show that the O3-M122 haplotypes in southern East Asia are more diverse than those in northern East Asia, suggesting a southern origin of the O3-M122 mutation. It was estimated that the early northward migration of the O3-M122 lineages in East Asia occurred ~25,000–30,000 years ago, consistent with the fossil records of modern humans in East Asia. [1]

[edit] Distribution

Although Haplogroup O3 appears to be primarily associated with Chinese populations, it also forms a significant component of the Y-chromosome diversity of most modern populations of the East Asian region. Haplogroup O3 is found in over 50% of all modern Chinese males (ranging up to over 80% in certain regional subgroups of the Han ethnicity), about 40% of Manchurian, Korean, and Vietnamese males, about 33.3%[2] to 60.7%[3] of Filipino males, about 35% of Malaysian males, about 25% of Zhuang[4] and Indonesian[5] males, and about 15%[6] to 20%[2] of Japanese males. The distribution of Haplogroup O3 stretches far into Central Asia (approx. 30% of Salar, 24% of Dongxiang[7], 18% to 22.8% of Mongolians, 12% of Uyghurs, 9% of Kazakhs, 6.2% of Altayans[8], and 4.1% of Uzbeks) and Oceania (approx. 25% of Polynesians, 18% of Micronesians, and 5% of Melanesians[9]), albeit with reduced frequencies of most subclades. It should be noted that Haplogroup O3* Y-chromosomes, which are not defined by any identified downstream markers, are actually more common among certain non-Han Chinese populations than among Han Chinese ones, and the presence of these O3* Y-chromosomes among various populations of Central Asia, East Asia, and Oceania is more likely to reflect a very ancient shared ancestry of these populations rather than the result of any historical events. It remains to be seen whether Haplogroup O3* Y-chromosomes can be parsed into distinct subclades that display significant geographical or ethnic correlations.

Among all the populations of East and Southeast Asia, Haplogroup O3 is most closely associated with those that speak a Sinitic, Tibeto-Burman, or Hmong-Mien language. Haplogroup O3 comprises about 50% or more of the total Y-chromosome variation among the populations of each of these language families. The Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman language families are generally believed to be derived from a common Sino-Tibetan protolanguage, and most linguists place the homeland of the Sino-Tibetan language family somewhere in northern China. The Hmong-Mien languages and cultures, for various archaeological and ethnohistorical reasons, are also generally believed to have derived from a source somewhere north of their current distribution, perhaps in northern or central China. The Tibetans, however, despite the fact that they speak a language of the Tibeto-Burman language family, have high percentages of the otherwise rare haplogroups D1 and D3, which are also found at much lower frequencies among the members of some other ethnic groups in East Asia and Central Asia.

Haplogroup O3 has been implicated as a diagnostic genetic marker of the Austronesian expansion when it is found in populations of Oceania. Its distribution in Oceania is mostly limited to the traditionally Austronesian culture zones, including moderately high frequencies in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Polynesia, with generally lower frequencies found in coastal and island Melanesia, Micronesia, and Taiwanese aboriginal tribes.

The subgroup O3a5-M134 is particularly closely associated with Sino-Tibetan populations, and it is generally not found outside of areas where a Sino-Tibetan language is currently spoken or that are historically supposed to have undergone Chinese colonization or immigration, such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. However, its presence among non-Sino-Tibetan populations is always very limited and never amounts to more than 10% of the total Y-chromosome diversity. There are also reports that Y-chromosomes belonging to Haplogroup O3a5 have been sampled from populations of such far-flung places as Western Samoa. Surprisingly, Haplogroup O3a5-M134 Y-chromosomes have also been found in about 1% to 3% of indigenous Australian men in the northwest of that continent, which might indicate that a certain degree of contact has occurred between the Austronesian expansion from Asia and some indigenous Australian populations. The fact that Haplogroup O3a5 is so strongly associated with Chinese populations, however, and the fact that no Y-chromosome haplogroups characteristic of Austronesian populations have been found among these indigenous Australian populations may be taken to suggest the possibility of some direct Chinese-Australian contact in the precolonial era. Within Japan, the subgroup O3a5-M134 forms the majority of the haplogroup O3 Y-chromosomes detected.

Haplogroup O3's brother clade, Haplogroup O1, displays a similar geographical distribution, being found among nearly all the populations of East and Southeast Asia, but generally at a frequency much lower than that of Haplogroup O3. Another brother clade, Haplogroup O2, has an impressive extent of dispersal, as it is found among the males of populations as widely separated as the Kolarians of India and the Japanese of Japan; however, Haplogroup O2's distribution is much more patchy, and the Haplogroup O2 Y-chromosomes found among the Mundas and the Japanese belong to distinct subclades.

[edit] References

1. ^ Hong Shi, Yong-li Dong, Bo Wen, Chun-Jie Xiao, Peter A. Underhill, Pei-dong Shen, Ranajit Chakraborty, Li Jin, and Bing Su, "Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122" American Journal of Human Genetics 77:408–419, 2005 (HTML) (PDF)
2. ^ a b Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes, Michael F. Hammer et al., Journal of Human Genetics (Jan. 2006)
3. ^ Matthew E. Hurles, Bryan C. Sykes, Mark A. Jobling, and Peter Forster, "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 76:894–901, 2005.
4. ^ Chen Jing, Li Hui et al., "Y-chromosome Genotyping and Genetic Structure of Zhuang Populations," Acta Genetica Sinica (Dec. 2006)
5. ^ Hui Li, Bo Wen, Shu-Juo Chen, Bing Su, Patcharin Pramoonjago, Yangfan Liu, Shangling Pan, Zhendong Qin, Wenhong Liu, Xu Cheng, Ningning Yang, Xin Li, Dinhbinh Tran, Daru Lu, Mu-Tsu Hsu, Ranjan Deka, Sangkot Marzuki, Chia-Chen Tan and Li Jin, "Paternal genetic affinity between western Austronesians and Daic populations," BMC Evolutionary Biology 2008, 8:146 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-146. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/8/146
6. ^ Y-chromosomal Binary Haplogroups in the Japanese Population and their Relationship to 16 Y-STR Polymorphisms, I. Nonaka et al., Annals of Human Genetics (Feb. 2007)
7. ^ Wei Wang, Cheryl Wise, Tom Baric, Michael L. Black and Alan H. Bittles, "The origins and genetic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang," Human Genetics (2003)
8. ^ V. N. Kharkov, V. A. Stepanov, O. F. Medvedeva, M. G. Spiridonova, M. I. Voevoda, V. N. Tadinova and V. P. Puzyrev, "Gene pool differences between Northern and Southern Altaians inferred from the data on Y-chromosomal haplogroups," Russian Journal of Genetics, Volume 43, Number 5 (May, 2007)
9. ^ Balinese Y-Chromosome Perspective on the Peopling of Indonesia: Genetic Contributions from Pre-Neolithic Hunter-Gatherers, Austronesian Farmers, and Indian Traders, Tatiana M. Karafet, J. S. Lansing, Alan J. Redd, Joseph C. Watkins, S. P. K. Surata, W. A. Arthawiguna, Laura Mayer, Michael Bamshad, Lynn B. Jorde, and Michael F. Hammer, Human Biology (Feb. 2005)

9. Gan Rui-Jing, Pan Shang-Ling, Mustavich Laura F, Qin Zhen-Dong, Cai Xiao-Yun, Qian Ji, Liu Cheng-Wu, Peng Jun-Hua, Li Shi-Lin, Xu Jie-Shun, Jin Li, Li Hui*: the Genographic Consortium (2008) Pinghua Population as an Exception of Han Chinese's Coherent Genetic Structure [1]. J Hum Genet 53:303-313.



Truth



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O2b



The phylogeography of Haplogroup O2b suggests a very ancient origin in Manchuria, followed by a long period of isolated evolution and population increase within the Korean Peninsula.






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_O2_(Y-DNA)

Haplogroup O2 is also notable for the fact that it can be divided into two major subclades that show almost completely disjoint distribution.


1: One of these subclades, Haplogroup O2a (M95), is found among some (mostly tribal) populations of South and Southeast Asia, as well as among the Khmers of Cambodia and the Balinese of Indonesia. There are also some reports that Haplogroup O2a may be associated with the so-called Negrito populations of mainland Southeast Asia, such as the Semang and the Senoi, but it is not clear whether this is their original Y-chromosome heritage or rather the result of incursion of Austroasiatic Y-chromosomes from the Khmers and related peoples who may have lent the Negritos their Austroasiatic languages in a manner similar to the Bantus' hypothesized lending of their languages and Haplogroup E Y-chromosomes to the pygmoid peoples of Africa, such as the Baka and Mbuti.

2: The other major subclade, Haplogroup O2b (SRY465, M176), is found almost exclusively among the

Koreans, the Japanese, and the Manchus.




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_K_(Y-DNA)

Haplogroup K (Y-DNA)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
Haplogroup K
Time of origin 35,000-40,000 years BP
Place of origin Southwest Asia
Ancestor IJK
Descendants L, M, NOP, S and T
Defining mutations M9

In human genetics, Haplogroup K (M9) is a Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. This haplogroup is a descendant of Haplogroup IJK. Its major descendant haplogroups are L (M20), M (P256), NO (M214) (plus NO's descendants N and O), P (M45) (plus P's descendants Q and R), S (M230), and T (M70). Haplogroups K1, K2, K3 and K4 are found only at low frequency in South Asia, the Malay Archipelago, Oceania, and Australia.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Origins

Y-DNA haplogroup K is an old lineage established approximately 40,000 thousand years ago whose origins were probably in southwestern Asia. At present this group contains two distinct classes of subgroups: (1) major groups L to T (refer to the main tree at Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree) and (2) minor groups K* and K1 to K4 which do not have any of the SNPs defining the major groups. These groups are found at low frequencies in various parts of Africa, Eurasia, Australia and the South Pacific.[1]

[edit] Subgroups

The subclades of Haplogroup K with their defining mutation, according to Karafet et al (2008) [2] (abbreviated for clarity to a maximum of five steps away from the root of Haplogroup K):

Note The 2008 paper made a number of changes compared to the previous 2006 ISOGG tree. The former subgroups K2 and K5 were renamed Haplogroups T and S; the old subgroups K1 and K7 were re-assigned as new subgroups M2 and M3 of a redefined Haplogroup M; and the former subgroups K3, K4 and K6 were renamed to new K1, K2 and K3.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Laura Scheinfeldt, Françoise Friedlaender, Jonathan Friedlaender, Krista Latham, George Koki, Tatyana Karafet, Michael Hammer and Joseph Lorenz, "Unexpected NRY Chromosome Variation in Northern Island Melanesia," Molecular Biology and Evolution 2006 23(8):1628-1641
  2. ^ Yali Xue, Tatiana Zerjal, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Qunfang Shu, Jiujin Xu, Ruofu Du, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Matthew E. Hurles, Huanming Yang, and Chris Tyler-Smith, "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times," Genetics 2006 April; 172(4): 2431–2439.
  3. ^ Supplementary Table 2: NRY haplogroup distribution in Han populations, from the online supplementary material for the article by Bo Wen et al., "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture," Nature 431, 302-305 (16 September 2004)
  4. ^ Table 1: Y-chromosome haplotype frequencies in 49 Eurasian populations, listed according to geographic region, from the article by R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (August 28, 2001)
  5. ^ "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas," Maria-Catira Bortolini et al., American Journal of Human Genetics 73:524-539, 2003


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http://www.imbice.org.ar/es/lab_06_b/06.pdf
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http://pritch.bsd.uchicago.edu/publications/FalushEtAl03_Science.pdf

"Traces of Human Migrations in Helicobacter pylori Populations"
Daniel Falush, Thierry Wirth, Bodo Linz, Jonathan K. Pritchard, Matthew Stephens, Mark Kidd, Martin J. Blaser, David Y. Graham, Sylvie Vacher, Guillermo I. Perez-Perez, Yoshio Yamaoka, Francis Mégraud, Kristina Otto, Ulrike Reichard, Elena Katzowitsch, Xiaoyan Wang, Mark Achtman, and Sebastian Suerbaum
Science 7 March 2003; 299: 1582-1585
"Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions "
Jared Diamond and Peter Bellwood
Science 25 April 2003; 300: 597-603

http://pritch.bsd.uchicago.edu/publications/FalushEtAl03_Science.pdf


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According to the latest 2007 genetic/DNA study by Jiang Ya-ping at Labs of Cellular and Molecular Evolution in Kunming Institute of Zoology, China,

the , contradicting the theory of "Beijing Apes"









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic_languages

Altaic is a disputed language family that is generally held by its proponents to include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic language families (Georg et al. 1999:73-74).[1] These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from northeast Asia through Central Asia to Anatolia and eastern Europe (Turks, Kalmyks)

Altaic languages

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Altaic
Geographic
distribution:		 East, North, Central, and West Asia and Eastern Europe
Genetic
classification:		 Altaic
Subdivisions:
Japonic (usually included)
ISO 639-2 and 639-5: tut

Altaic is a disputed language family that is generally held by its proponents to include the Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic language families (Georg et al. 1999:73-74).[1] These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from northeast Asia through Central Asia to Anatolia and eastern Europe (Turks, Kalmyks).[2] The group is named after the Altai Mountains, a mountain range in Central Asia.

These language families share numerous characteristics. The debate is over the origin of their similarities. One camp, often called the "Altaicists", views these similarities as arising from common descent from a Proto-Altaic language spoken several thousand years ago. The other camp, often called the "anti-Altaicists", views these similarities as arising from areal interaction between the language groups concerned. Some linguists believe the case for either interpretation is about equally strong; they have been called the "skeptics" (Georg et al. 1999:81).

Another view accepts Altaic as a valid family but includes in it only Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic. This view was widespread prior to the 1960s, but has almost no supporters among specialists today (Georg et al. 1999:73-74). The expanded grouping, including Korean and, from the early 1970s on, Japanese, came to be known as "Macro-Altaic", leading to the designation by back-formation of the smaller grouping as "Micro-Altaic". A minority of Altaicists continues to support the inclusion of Korean but not that of Japanese (Poppe 1976:470, Georg et al. 1999:65, 74).

Micro-Altaic would include about 66 living languages,[3] to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Japanese, and the Ryukyuan languages for a total of about 74. (These are estimates, depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect. They do not include earlier states of language, such as Old Japanese.) Micro-Altaic would have a total of about 348 million speakers today, Macro-Altaic about 558 million.

The history of the Altaic idea is detailed below, as well as the case against it.

Distribution of the Altaic languages across Eurasia.

Contents

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Works cited

  • Aalto, Pentti. 1955. "On the Altaic initial *p-." Central Asiatic Journal 1, 9–16.
  • Anthony, David W. 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Boller, Anton. 1857. Nachweis, daß das Japanische zum ural-altaischen Stamme gehört. Wien.
  • Clauson, Gerard. 1956. "The case against the Altaic theory." Central Asiatic Journal 2, 181–187.
  • Clauson, Gerard. 1959. "The case for the Altaic theory examined." Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses, edited by H. Franke. Wiesbaden: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, in Komission bei Franz Steiner Verlag.
  • Clauson, Gerard. 1968. "A lexicostatistical appraisal of the Altaic theory." Central Asiatic Journal 13: 1-23.
  • Doerfer, Gerhard. 1963. "Bemerkungen zur Verwandtschaft der sog. altaische Sprachen", 'Remarks on the relationship of the so-called Altaic languages'. In Gerhard Doerfer, Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, Bd. I: Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, 1963, 51–105. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.
  • Doerfer, Gerhard. 1973. "Lautgesetze und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnicomparativismus." Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 10.
  • Doerfer, Gerhard. 1974. "Ist das Japanische mit den altaischen Sprachen verwandt?" Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 114.1.
  • Doerfer, Gerhard. 1985. Mongolica-Tungusica. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
  • Doerfer, Gerhard. 1988. Grundwort und Sprachmischung: Eine Untersuchung an Hand von Körperteilbezeichnungen. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.
  • Georg, Stefan. 1999 / 2000. "Haupt und Glieder der altaischen Hypothese: die Körperteilbezeichnungen im Türkischen, Mongolischen und Tungusischen" ('Head and members of the Altaic hypothesis: The body-part designations in Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic'). Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, neue Folge B 16, 143–182.
  • Georg, Stefan. 2004. Review of Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Diachronica 21.2, 445-450.
  • Georg, Stefan. 2005. "Reply [to Starostin 2005]." Diachronica 22.2, 455–457.
  • Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, 2 volumes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Manaster Ramer, Alexis and Paul Sidwell. 1997. "The truth about Strahlenberg's classification of the languages of Northeastern Eurasia." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 87, 139–160.
  • Menges, Karl. H. 1975. Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.
  • Mallory, J.P. 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames and Hudson.
  • Miller, Roy Andrew. 1971. Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226527190.
  • Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977–78. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295957662.
  • Miller, Roy Andrew. 1986. Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese. London: Athlone Press. ISBN 0485112515.
  • Miller, Roy Andrew. 1991. "Genetic connections among the Altaic languages." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, 1991, 293–327. ISBN 0804718970.
  • Miller, Roy Andrew. 1996. Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN 9748299694.
  • Patrie, James. 1982. The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824807243.
  • Poppe, Nicholas. 1960. Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen. Teil I. Vergleichende Lautlehre, 'Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages, Part 1: Comparative Phonology'. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Only part to appear of a projected larger work.)
  • Poppe, Nicholas. 1965. Introduction to Altaic Linguistics. Ural-altaische Bibliothek 14. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
  • Ramstedt, G.J. 1952. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft II. Formenlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 2: Morphology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
  • Ramstedt, G.J. 1957. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft I. Lautlehre, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 1: Phonology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
  • Ramstedt, G.J. 1966. Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft III. Register, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 3: Index', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
  • Robbeets, Martine. 2005. Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
  • Robbeets, Martine. 2007. "How the actional suffix chain connects Japanese to Altaic." In Turkic Languages 11.1, 3–58.
  • Schönig, Claus. 2003. "Turko-Mongolic Relations." In The Mongolic Languages, edited by Juha Janhunen, 403–419. London: Routledge.
  • Starostin, Sergei A. 1991. Altajskaja problema i proisxoždenie japonskogo jazyka, 'The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language'. Moscow: Nauka.
  • Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004131531.
  • Starostin, Sergei A. 2005. "Response to Stefan Georg's review of the Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages." Diachronica 22(2), 451–454.
  • Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1730. Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia.... Stockholm. (Reprint: 1975. Studia Uralo-Altaica. Szeged and Amsterdam.)
  • Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1738. Russia, Siberia and Great Tartary, an Historico-geographical Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia.... (Reprint: 1970. New York: Arno Press.) English translation of the previous.
  • Street, John C. 1962. Review of N. Poppe, Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen, Teil I (1960). Language 38, 92–98.
  • Tekin, Talat. 1994. "Altaic languages." In The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 1, edited by R.E. Asher. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.
  • Unger, J. Marshall. 1990. "Summary report of the Altaic panel." In Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology, edited by Philip Baldi, 479–482. Berlin - New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Vovin, Alexander. 1993. "About the phonetic value of the Middle Korean grapheme ᅀ." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 56(2), 247–259.
  • Vovin, Alexander. 1994. "Genetic affiliation of Japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 85, 241–256.
  • Vovin, Alexander. 2001. "Japanese, Korean, and Tungusic: evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology." Altaic Affinities (Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of PIAC, Provo, Utah, 1997), edited by David B. Honey and David C. Wright, 83–202. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies.
  • Vovin, Alexander. 2005. "The end of the Altaic controversy" (review of Starostin et al. 2003). Central Asiatic Journal 49.1, 71–132.
  • Whitney Coolidge, Jennifer. 2005. Southern Turkmenistan in the Neolithic: A Petrographic Case Study. Oxbow Books.
  • 이기문, 국어사 개설, 탑출판사, 1991.

[edit] Further reading

  • Greenberg, Joseph H. 1997. "Does Altaic exist?" In Irén Hegedus, Peter A. Michalove, and Alexis Manaster Ramer (editors), Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: A Festschrift for Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin, Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 1997, 88–93. (Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, Genetic Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 325–330.)
  • Janhunen, Juha. 1992. "Das Japanische in vergleichender Sicht." Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne 84, 145-61.
  • Johanson, Lars. 1999. "Cognates and copies in Altaic verb derivation." Language and Literature – Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages: Studies in Honour of Roy Andrew Miller on His 75th Birthday, edited by Karl H. Menges and Nelly Naumann, 1-13. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Also: HTML version.)
  • Johanson, Lars. 2002. Structural Factors in Turkic Language Contacts, translated by Vanessa Karam. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.
  • Martin, Samuel E. 1966. "Lexical evidence relating Korean to Japanese." Language 12.2, 185–251.
  • Nichols, Johanna. 1992. Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford University Press.
  • Sinor, Denis. 1990. Essays in Comparative Altaic Linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 0933070268.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links




http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004210


The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers

Han-Jun Jin1,2, Chris Tyler-Smith2, Wook Kim1*

1 Department of Biological Sciences, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea, 2 The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Abstract Top

Background

The Koreans are generally considered a northeast Asian group because of their geographical location. However, recent findings from Y chromosome studies showed that the Korean population contains lineages from both southern and northern parts of East Asia. To understand the genetic history and relationships of Korea more fully, additional data and analyses are necessary.

Methodology and Results

We analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation in the hypervariable segments I and II (HVS-I and HVS-II) and haplogroup-specific mutations in coding regions in 445 individuals from seven east Asian populations (Korean, Korean-Chinese, Mongolian, Manchurian, Han (Beijing), Vietnamese and Thais). In addition, published mtDNA haplogroup data (N = 3307), mtDNA HVS-I sequences (N = 2313), Y chromosome haplogroup data (N = 1697) and Y chromosome STR data (N = 2713) were analyzed to elucidate the genetic structure of East Asian populations. All the mtDNA profiles studied here were classified into subsets of haplogroups common in East Asia, with just two exceptions. In general, the Korean mtDNA profiles revealed similarities to other northeastern Asian populations through analysis of individual haplogroup distributions, genetic distances between populations or an analysis of molecular variance, although a minor southern contribution was also suggested. Reanalysis of Y-chromosomal data confirm!ed both the overall similarity to other northeastern populations, and also a larger paternal contribution from southeastern populations.

Conclusion

The present work provides evidence that peopling of Korea can be seen as a complex process, interpreted as an early northern Asian settlement with at least one subsequent male-biased southern-to-northern migration, possibly associated with the spread of rice agriculture.

Citation: Jin H-J, Tyler-Smith C, Kim W (2009) The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers. PLoS ONE 4(1): e4210. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210

Editor: Mark A. Batzer, Louisiana State University, United States of America

Received: September 12, 2008; Accepted: December 8, 2008; Published: January 16, 2009

Copyright: ? 2009 Jin et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This study, which forms a part of the project, has been achieved with the support of Conservation Technology Research and Development project, which has been hosted by National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage of Cultural Heritage Administration, Republic of Korea. This work was supported by grant from the Koguryo Research Foundation, Republic of Korea. CTS was supported by The Wellcome Trust. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

* E-mail: wookkim@dankook.ac.kr

Introduction Top

An understanding of the evolutionary history of East Asian populations has long been a subject of interest in the field of human evolutionary genetics. Based on results of classical genetic markers, there is significant separation between southern and northern populations of East Asia [1]. This north-south genetic differentiation is likely to have an origin in the early peopling of the region. There have been two major models for early migration routes into East Asia. The first model postulates a southeast Asian origin, followed by a northward migration [2]. . Recent genetic surveys using autosomal microsatellite markers [3] and Y-chromosomal binary markers [4] have been interpreted as supporting this model. In contrast, the second model suggests a multidirectional route: one migration through central Asia and one through southeast Asia [1], [5], [6]. Thus, understanding the genetic origin and history of Korea may be informative for questions concerning prehistoric migration route(s) and population expansions in East Asia.

The Korean Peninsula is located to the north of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers of China, and bounded to the northeast by Russia. Therefore, the Koreans are geographically a northeast Asian group. Anthropological and archeological evidence suggests that the early Korean population was related to Mongolian ethnic groups who inhabited the general area of the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal regions of southeast Siberia [7]. According to Korea's founding myths, the Ancient Chosun (the first state-level society of Korea) was established around 2,333 BC in the region of southern Manchuria but later moved into the Pyongyang area of northwest Korea. In addition, archeological evidence reveals that rice cultivation had spread to most parts of the Korean Peninsula by around 1,000?2,000 BC, introduced from the Yellow River and/or Yangtze River basin in China [8].

Studies of classical genetic markers showed that Koreans tend to have a close genetic affinity with Mongolians among East Asians [9]?[11]. In contrast, recent surveys of Y-chromosomal DNA variation revealed that the Korean population contained lineages typical of both southern and northern East Asian populations [6], [12], [13]. The Koreans appeared to have affinities with Manchurians, Yunnan-Chinese from southern China, and Vietnamese [13].

To understand the genetic history of Korea better, more data from additional genetic markers from Korea and its surrounding regions are necessary. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), like the Y chromosome, can also provide valuable information about the phylogeography of human populations due to its special features of haploidy and uniparental inheritance [14]?[18]. Although recent investigations of mtDNA variation in East Asia have provided valuable information for constructing a robust phylogenetic tree of mtDNA haplotypes, limited data on the Korean population are available [19]?[21].

In this study, we present new data on the mtDNA sequence variation of the hypervariable segments I and II (HVS-I and HVS-II) and haplogroup-specific mutations in coding regions in 445 individuals from seven East Asian populations, including Korea. In addition, mtDNA haplogroup data (N = 3307), mtDNA HVS-I sequences (N = 2313), Y chromosome haplogroup data (N = 1697) and Y chromosome STR data (N = 2713) from the literature were analyzed to elucidate wider aspects of the genetic structure of East Asian populations.

Materials and Methods Top

DNA samples and reference data

We analyzed a total of 445 individuals, collected from seven East Asian populations (Korean, Korean-Chinese (People of Korean origin now living in China), Mongolian, Manchurian, Chinese Han (Beijing), Vietnamese, and Thai). The DNA samples included subsets of the samples examined by Jin et al. [13] and Kwak et al. [22], although the exact number of subjects for each population occasionally varies between these studies. In addition, we included the following new Korean-Chinese and Mongolian samples: 51 Korean-Chinese from northern China and 47 Mongolians from Ulaanbaatar. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee and institutional review boards of Institute of Bio-Science and Technology in the Dankook University in Cheonan, and separate written informed consent was obtained for enrollment from all participants. DNA was prepared from whole blood by the standard method [23] or was extracted from buccal cells according to the procedure of Richards et al. [24].

In addition to our mtDNA data sets, mtDNA haplogroup data for 2862 individuals, mtDNA HVS-I sequences data for 1868 individuals, Y chromosome haplogroup data for 1697 individuals and Y chromosome STR data (ten Y-STR loci: DYS19, DYS389I, DYS389b, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438 and DYS439) for 2716 individuals were retrieved from the literature [19], [20], [25]?[40] to elucidate the genetic relationship between Koreans and other East Asian populations (details in Supplementary Table S1 and Figure 1). For mtDNA haplogroup analysis, some sub-haplogroups were clustered into major haplogroups according to their phylogenetic affiliations (Supplementary Table S2). Similarly, Y chromosome haplogroups from reference data were reclassified into a common set of 13 Y-chromosomal (sub)haplogroups that captured most of the phylogenetic information to allow population comparisons (Supplementary Table S3).

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Figure 1. Geographic locations of the Asian populations studied.

(A) mtDNA haplogroups. (B) mtDNA HVS-I sequences. (C) Y-chromosome haplogroups. (D) Y-chromosome STRs. aWen et al. [27]. bLi et al. [36].

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.g001

PCR amplification

PCR amplification of the HVS-I and HVS-II of mtDNA control region was performed using two primer sets as described by Yao et al. [19]: HVS-I, L15996/H16498 (nucleotide positions, 15975-15996/16517-16498); HVS-II, L29/H408 (nucleotide positions, 8-29/429-408). Primers were designed for amplifying multiple fragments that contain haplogroup diagnostic polymorphisms in the coding regions [19], [20], [41]. Each set of segments was amplified in a 50 ul reaction containing 25 ng of genomic DNA, 10 pM of each primer, 0.2 mM of dNTPs, 2.0 mM MgCl2, 5 mM KCl, 10 mM TRIS-HCl (pH 8.3) and 1.5 U AmpliTaq DNA polymerase (Perkin-Elmer, CA, USA). The PCR amplification was carried out using a GeneAmp? PCR system 9700 thermal cycler (Applied Biosystems, CA, USA) under the conditions described in Table 1.

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Table 1. Primers for mtDNA amplification, sequencing and RFLP analyses.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.t001

mtDNA sequencing and genotyping of RFLP

After PCR amplification, each PCR product was purified using the Wizard? PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Promega, WI, USA) and then sequenced by cycle sequencing using either a MegaBase 1000 sequencer (Amersham Bioscience, USA) or an ABI PRISM™ 310 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, CA, USA) with DYEnamic ET Dye Terminator (Amersham Bioscience, USA) or BigDye™ Terminator (PE Biosystems, USA), respectively. DNA sequences of the PCR amplicons were determined from both forward and reverse sequence data using the original primer pairs. The sequences from nucleotide position (np) 16024 to 16365 in HVS-I and from 73 to 340 in HVS-II were determined, since ambiguous electropherograms for 20?30 nucleotides near the primers were frequently observed.

The intergenic COII/tRNALys 9-bp deletion was analyzed as described in Jin et al. [42]. In addition, several amplified segments, mainly in the mtDNA coding regions, were analyzed by RFLP typing and additional sequencing, as listed in Table 1.

Sequence alignment and haplogroup analyses

Sequences were aligned and compared with the revised Cambridge Reference Sequence (rCRS) [43] using the Sequencher program ver. 2000 (Gene Codes corporation, MI, USA). The results were converted into a Microsoft Excel table (Microsoft Corporation, CA, USA). The mtDNAs were classified into the (sub-)haplogroups based on HVS-I/II motifs of haplogroup specific-sequences as well as coding regions as described in recent surveys [19], [20], [25], [44], [45]. The HVS-I motif searching and haplogroup-directed comparison with closely related sequences from other databases led us to tentatively assign each mtDNA to a haplogroup. To further characterize the mtDNA lineage tested, we compared their HVS-II motif to verify the predicted haplogroup status of each mtDNA. In general, more than 95% of mtDNA lineages can faithfully be classified to specific haplogroups using HVS-I/II motifs without extra information from coding region sequences [44]. However, in the remaining cases, their (sub-)haplogroups were characterized using sequence information from some coding region sites (Table 1). After each mtDNA was assigned to the most-derived named haplogroup, the haplogroup distribution frequencies in each of seven populations were estimated. For quality assurance purposes, we performed quasi-median network analysis [46], [47]. The HVS-I (np 16024?16365 np) and HVS-II (np 74?340) sequence of 445 individuals of this study have been submitted to GenBank (Accession Numbers, FJ493775-FJ494664).

Data analyses

The genetic differentiation between different population samples and its statistical significance were assessed via FST (mtDNA HG and HVS-I/II and Y-SNPs) and RST (Y-STRs) values. The population genetic structure of the ethnic and/or regional groups was analyzed through the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) approach [48]. The calculations of diversity indices, FST, RST and AMOVA were performed using the Arlequin 2.000 package [49]. Population pairwise FST and RST values were visualized by multidimensional scaling (MDS) plot analyses using SPSS 12.0 software.

Haplogroup-specific median-joining networks [50] for Y chromosome data were constructed using the NETWORK 4.2 program (www.fluxus-technology.com). Such networks were initially highly reticulated, and we reduced reticulations by first weighting the loci according to the inverse of their variance in the dataset used [51] and subsequently constructing a reduced-median network [52] to form the input of the median-joining network [53].

The admixture proportions of northeast Asian and the southeast Asian parental populations in the Korean population were estimated for mtDNA and the Y chromosome using the Admix 2.0 software [54]

Results and Discussion Top

Almost all of the mtDNA lineages analyzed here could be assigned to the East Asian-specific (sub)haplogroups described recently [19], [20], [25], [44], [45], with the exception of two individuals belonging to the European mtDNA haplogroups T (Manchurian) and U5a (Mongolian) (Table 2). The gene diversity (H), nucleotide diversity (πn), and mean number of pairwise differences of the population samples are listed in Table 3. All seven populations displayed high levels of genetic diversity (H>0.99), suggesting a relatively large population size and heterogeneity of each mtDNA pool. The haplogroup frequencies observed in each population are summarized in Table 2. Based on these haplogroup assignments, the Koreans share lineages with both the southern and the northern haplogroup complexes of East Asia. We first attempted to quantitate these contributions by a detailed consideration of the distribution of each lineage.

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Table 2. Distribution of mtDNA haplogroup frequencies in 7 East Asian populations.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.t002
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Table 3. Diversity indices of mtDNA in seven east Asian populations.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.t003

The highest (23.8%) frequency in the Korean mtDNA pool was observed for haplogroup D4, which is widespread in northern East Asia and especially in the Korean-Chinese (21.6%), and Manchurians (20.0%). In total, haplogroup D lineages including the subhaplogroups (D4, D4a, D4b, D5, and D5a) accounted for 32.4% of the Korean mtDNA pool. In addition, the Koreans present moderate frequencies of (sub)haplogroup A (8.1%) and (sub)haplogroup G (10.3%) lineages, mostly preval!ent in northeast Asia and southeast Siberia [20], [55]?[57]. Other Siberian and Mongolian-preval!ent haplogroups from the C, Y and Z lineages make up less than 4% of the Korean mtDNA pool. Haplogroups A5a and Y2 are found almost exclusively in Korea but were present at extremely low frequencies. In total, these northern haplogroups account for ~60% of the mtDNA gene pool of the Koreans. In addition, southeast Asian-preval!ent mtDNA lineages of (sub)haplogroups B (14.6%), M7 (10.3%), and F (9.7) are also found at moderate frequencies in the Korean population (Table 2). These findings suggest that more than 30% of the Korean mtDNA pool is attributable to maternal lineages with a more southern origin. We also found the haplogroup M7a1 exclusively in the Korean population. This result is consistent with previous reports that haplogroup M7a is restricted to Japan and south Korea [18], [20]. Thus, the distribution pattern of mtDNA haplogroups leads us to consider that the peopling of Korea is likely to have involved multiple sources.

We then investigated the mtDNA and Y-chromosomal relationships between the East Asian populations, using both the new and published data. In these analyses mtDNA haplogroups, mtDNA HVS-I sequences, Y-SNPs and Y-STRs were compared (Supplementary Tables S1, S2, S3). Pairwise FST (mtDNA haplogroup, mtDNA HVS-I sequences and Y-SNPs) and RST (Y-STRs) values between East Asian populations were calculated (Supplementary Table S1). The FST distances of mtDNA markers (mtDNA haplogroups and HVR-I sequences) of Korean populations showed close relationships with Manchurians, Japanese, Mongolians and northern Han Chinese but not with southern Asians (Supplementary Tables S4 and S5; Figure 2A, B). In the MDS plots, the Korean samples lay entirely within the cluster of northern populations.

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Figure 2. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) plot based on (A) FST distances of mtDNA haplogroups (stress = 0.21).

(B) FST distances of mtDNA HVS-I sequences (stress = 0.19). (C) FST distances of Y chromosome haplogroups (stress = 0.21). (D) RST distances of Y chromosome STRs (stress = 0.19). (closed diamond: North Asians; opened diamonds: South Asians). aWen et al. [27]. bLi et al. [36].

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.g002

In contrast, the results of Y chromosome analyses (based on Y-SNPs and Y-STRs) of Korean populations revealed closer relationships with both northeast and southeast Asian populations (Supplementary Tables S6 and S7; Figure 2C, D). Like the mtDNA distances, Y-chromosomal distances from Manchurian, Japanese and northern Han Chinese populations were usually not significantly greater than zero, but some distances from southern Han populations (e.g. Yunnan Han, Y haplogroups; Meixian Han, Y-STRs) or other southern populations (e.g. Vietnamese, Y haplogroups) were also not significantly above zero (Supplementary Tables S6 and S7), as noted previously [13]. In the MDS plots, the Korean samples lay at the border between the northern and southern clusters, rather than within the northern cluster (Figure 2C, D). In order to investigate Y-chromosomal relationships in more detail, we visualized STR haplotypes within a common predominantly northern haplogroup (C*) and southern haplogroup (O3) using networks [50] constructed with the seven Y-STRs common to all datasets (Figure 3). These networks did not show striking geographical structure, so we calculated, for each Korean haplotype, the distance to the closest northern and southern haplotype. In both haplogroups, the mean distance to the southern haplotypes was lower than to the northern haplotypes (C* Korean-north 5.0 steps, Korean-south 4.5 steps; O3 Korean-north 3.5 steps, Korean-south 2.2 steps). This finding is particularly striking for haplogroup C* because it is far more preval!ent in the north (Figure 3A).

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Figure 3. Median-joining network for east Asian (A) Network of 7 Y-STRs (DYS19, DYS389b, DYS389I, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392 and DYS393) variation within Haplogroup C.

(B) Network of 7 Y-STRs within Haplogroup O3. Circle areas are proportional to haplotype frequency. Lines represent the mutational differences between haplotypes. The network corresponds the following colors: purple- far north Asian populations (Daur, Ewenki, Han (Xinjiang), inner Mongolians, Oroqen, outer Mongolians, Uygur (Yili), Uygur (Urumqi) and Xibe); blue- Koreans; white-far south Asian populations (Buyi, Han (Guangdong), Han (Sichuan), Han (Yunnan), Hani, Indonesians, Li, philippines, She, Thais, Vietnamese, Yao (Bama) and Yao (Liannan).

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.g003

The genetic differences between the Koreans and other East Asians were examined by AMOVA (Table 4). When samples were grouped into northeast Asians and southeast Asians (excluding Koreans), a highly significant difference was found between the two groups with all markers. Thus there is significant genetic differentiation within the region, and we could then compare each group separately with the Koreans. With mtDNA, Koreans were not significantly different from either group when HVRI sequences were compared, although they were distinct from the southeast Asians in the haplogroup comparisons. With the Y chromosomes, they were again not distinct from either group when haplogroup comparisons were made, but were distinct from the southeast Asians in the STR-based comparison (Table 4).

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Table 4. AMOVA Results.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.t004

Our study documents the genetic relationships of the Koreans with their neighboring populations in unprecedented detail. Two major findings emerge. First, the Koreans are overall more similar to northeast Asians than to southeast Asians. This conclusion would be expected from the general correlation between genetic variation and geography observed for human populations, and is supported here by an examination of individual mtDNA haplogroups (Table 2), genetic distances between populations derived from mtDNA or Y-chromosomal data (Figure 2), and the apportionment of genetic diversity between different groups of populations (Table 4). Second, the conclusions from mtDNA and Y-chromosomal analyses differ. Sex-biased admixture is common in human expansions such as that of Bantu-speaking farmers in Africa [58], the spread of the Han ethnic group in China [59] or the post-Columbian peopling of the Americas [60]. The effects in Korea are more subtle, but show a larger male than female contribution from southern East Asia to the population of Korea, most clearly revealed by the admixture estimates, where a 35% contribution from the south was estimated for mtDNA, compared with a 83% contribution for the Y chromosome (Table 5).

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Table 5. Admixture estimates of Northeast Asians and Southeast Asians in Korean populations.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210.t005

The predominant genetic relationship with northern East Asians is consistent with other lines of evidence. Xue et al. [31] reported that the northern East Asian populations started to expand in number before the last glacial maximum at 21-18 KYA, while the southern populations all started to expand after it, but then grew faster, and they suggested that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant megafauna of the “Mammoth Steppe,” while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as tubers. By this criterion, the Koreans, expanding at about 30 KYA [31] also resemble other northern populations. Historical evidence suggests that the Ancient Chosun, the first state-level society, was established in the region of southern Manchuria and later moved into the Pyongyang area of the northwestern Korean Peninsula. Based on archeological and anthropological data, the early Korean population possibly had an origin in the northern regions of the Altai-Sayan and Baikal regions of Southeast Siberia [7], [8], [61].

What could be the origin of the male-biased southern contribution to Korean gene pool illustrated, for example, by haplogroups O-M122 (42.2%) and O-SRY465 (20.1%) [29]. Recent molecular genetic analyses and the geographical distribution of haplogroup O-M122 lineages, found widely throughout East Asia at high frequencies (especially in southern populations and China), have suggested a link between these Y-chromosome expansions and the spread of rice agriculture in East Asia [62]?[64]. In general, Y-chromosomes might be spread via a process of demic diffusion during the early agricultural expansion period [65], [66]. If this interpretation were substantiated, the spatial pattern of Y-haplogroup O would imply a genetic contribution to Korea through the spread of male-mediated agriculture. Large-scale genetic analyses thus begin to reveal some of the complexities of the peopling of Korea, and further studies of individual autosomal loci or genomewide genotyping and sequencing are expected to provide further insights.

Supporting Information Top

Table S1.

Asian populations studied

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Table S2.

mtDNA-haplogroup distributions in East Asian populations

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Table S3.

Y-haplogroup distribution in East Asian populations

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Table S4.

FST distances of mtDNA haplogroups in east Asian populations (non-significant values are underlined). aPresent work; bKivisild et al. [20]; cYao et al. [19]; dLee et al. [30]; eWen et al. [27]; fKong et al. [25]; gLi et al. [36].

(0.22 MB XLS)

Table S5.

FST values of mtDNA HVR-I Sequences in east Asian populations (non-significant values are underlined). aPresent work; bMaruyama et al. [26]; cKivisild et al. [20]; dKong et al. [25]; eYao et al. [19]; fZhang et al. [28]; gLi et al. [36]; hPowell et al. [37]

(0.07 MB XLS)

Table S6.

FST distances of Y chromosome haplogroups in east Asian popoulations (non-significant values are underlined). aHong et al. [29]; bXue et al. [31].

(0.05 MB XLS)

Table S7.

RST distances in east Asian populations using ten Y chromsome STRs (non-significant values are underlined). aHara et al. [34]; bHuang et al. [40]; cHwang et al. [35]; dYan et al. [38]; eZhang et al. [33]; fZhang et al. [39]; gYong et al. [32]; hXue et al. [31].

(0.05 MB XLS)

Acknowledgments Top

We would like to thank H.J. Bandelt for crucial comments and advice on the mtDNA study. We are grateful to all volunteers for providing DNA samples. We also thank K.D. Kwak and S.B. Hong for technical assistance.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: HJJ CTS WK. Performed the experiments: HJJ. Analyzed the data: HJJ CTS WK. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: WK. Wrote the paper: HJJ CTS WK.

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http://www.africaresource.com/rasta/sesostris-the-great-the-egyptian-hercules/african-roots-of-china/

African Roots Of China

Africans launched Chinese civilisation
By Nsaka Sesepkekiu
Student of African and Asian Studies
Faculty of Humanities
University of the West Indies
Trinidad and Tobago

Whenever we hear the term “Chinese” we often associate the word with short slanted eyed people who can fight kung fu. With the recent celebration of establishment of the People’s Republic of China, I wish not only to congratulate them but also to add some insight into their history.

The original, first, native, primitive inhabitants of China were black Africans who arrived there about 100,000 years ago and dominated the region until a few thousand years ago when the Mongol advance into that region began. These Africans who fled the Mongol onslaught can still be found in South East Asia and the Pacific Islands misnomered Nigritos or “small black men.” The Agta of the Philippines is one such example. Indeed archeology, forensic and otherwise confirm that China’s first two dynasties, the Xia and the Ch’ang/Sh’ang, were largely Black African with an Australoid, called “Madras Indian” or “Chamar” in Trinidad, present in small percentages. These Africans would carry an art of fighting developed in the Horn of Africa into China which today we call martial arts: Tai Chi, Kung fu and Tae Kwon Do. Even the oracle of the I-Ching came with a later African group, the Akkadians of Babylon.

Around 500 BCE an African living in India called Gautama would establish a religion called Buddhism which would come to dominate Chinese thought. Any one who is in doubt should consult Geoffrey Higgins’s Anacalypsis, Albert Churchward’s Origin and development of Religions, Gerald Massey’s Egypt the Light of the World, Riunoko Rashidi’s African Presence in Early Asia and J A Roger’s Sex and Race Vol 1. Many Africans survived the Mongol invasion into the twentieth century only to be exterminated by Chairman Mao’s programme of Cultural cleansing. Under this programme millions of Africans and Afro-Asians were killed from 1951-1956. Contribute we still did, giving the People’s Republic of China its first Chief Minister in the name of Eugene Chen, a Trinidadian of George Street, Port-of-Spain, who was of an African mother and a Chinese father.

For further reading on this individual one should consult J A Rogers’ World’s Great Men of Colour Vol I. So next time the word China or Chinese is mentioned remember that Africans played a pivotal role in launching what is called Chinese civilisation, if such a thing exists.

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The Black African Foundation of China: The First Chinese

The First Chinese

By Dr. Clyde Winters
Edited by Ogu-Eji-Ofo-Annu

It can be reasonably assumed that the first inhabitants of the chinese mainland were Black Brown Africans from East, West and Central regions of Africa given that the earliest human skeletal remains in China are of “Negro” (or “Negritosâ€� a psuedo-scientific term commonly used today) people. The next oldest skeletal type after the period of predominance of the African immigrants were the Classical Mongoloids or Austronesian speakers.

Archaeological research makes it clear that “Negroids” (read: Central African skeletal types) were very common to ancient China. F. Weidenreich in Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Peiping 13, (1938-30) noted that the one of the earliest skulls from north China found in the Upper Cave of Chou-k’ou-tien, was of a Oceanic Negroid/ Melanesoid ” (p.163). This is the so-called Peking Man. This would place people in China during the Mesolithic looking like African/Negro people , not native American.

These Blacks were the dominant group in South China. Kwang-chih Chang, writing in the 4th edition of Archaeology of ancient China (1986) wrote that:” by the beginning of the Recent (Holocene) period the population in North China and that in the southwest and in Indochina had become sufficiently differentiated to be designated as Mongoloid and OCEANIC NEGROID races respectively….”(p.64). By the Upper Pleistocene the Negroid type was typified by the Liu-chiang skulls from Yunnan (Chang, 1986, p.69).

Negroid skeletons dating to the early periods of Southern Chinese history have been found in Shangdong, Jiantung, Sichuan, Yunnan, Pearl River delta and Jiangxi especially at the initial sites of Chingliengang (Ch’ing-lien-kang) and Mazhiabang (Ma chia-pang) phases (see: K.C. Chang, The archaeology of ancient China, (Yale University Press:New Haven,1977) p.76) . The Chingliengang culture is often referred to as the Ta-wen-k’ou (Dawenkou) culture of North China. The presence of Negroid skeletal remains at Dawenkou sites make it clear that Negroes spread out from the North to South China. The Dawenkou culture predates the Lung-shan culture which is associated with the Xia civilization.

Many researchers believe that the Yi of Southern China were the ancestors of the Austronesian, Polynesian and Melanesian people.

In the Chinese literature the Blacks were called li-min, Kunlung, Ch’iang (Qiang), Yi and Yueh. The founders of the Xia Dynasty and the Shang Dynasties were blacks. These blacks were called Yueh and Qiang. The modern Chinese are descendants of the Zhou. The second Shang Dynasty (situated at Anyang) was founded by the Yin. As a result this dynasty is called Shang-Yin.

The Yin or Classical/Oceanic Mongoloid type is associated with the Austronesian speakers ( Kwang-chih Chang, “Prehistoric and early historic culture horizons and traditions in South China”, Current Anthropology, 5 (1964) pp.359-375 :375). Djehuti your Austronesian or Oceanic ancestors were referred to in the Chinese literature as Yin, Feng, Yen, Zhiu Yi and Lun Yi.

It is not clear that contemporary European and Chinese people are descendants of the original Black population which lived in Europe and Asia; neither is it clear that the Chinese are descendants of the Austronesian speaking people.

Textual evidence and the skeletal record seem to indicate that contemporary Chinese and European people come out of nowhere after 1500 BC, the European Sea People came from the North and attacked Egypt, and the Chinese (Hua) people came from the North and ran the Black Qiang and Yueh tribes, along with the Austronesian Yin (classical mongoloid or Austronesian speakers) off the Chinese mainland back into Southeast Asia or on to the Pacific Islands.

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The Black African Foundation of China — Honouring The Aboriginal Black People of China

Published on TaipeiTimes
http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2004/11/27/2003212815

In honor of the Little Black People

The Saisiyat tribe of Hsinchu and Miaoli will perform a solemn rite this weekend to commemorate a race of people that they exterminated

By Jules Quartly
STAFF REPORTER
Saturday, Nov 27, 2004,Page 16

Xiangtian Lake is one of two places to see the ritual. Drinking, singing and dancing are expected to take place deep in the mountains of Miaoli and Hsinchu when the “Ritual of the Little Black People” is performed by the Saisiyat tribe once again this weekend.

For the past 100 years or so, the Saisiyat tribe has performed the songs and rites of the festival to bring good harvests, ward off bad luck and keep alive the spirit of a race of people who are said to have preceded all others in Taiwan.

In fact, the short, black men the festival celebrates are one of the most ancient types of modern humans on this planet and their kin still survive in Asia today. They are said to be diminutive Africoids and are variously called Pygmies, Negritos and Aeta. They are found in the Philippines, northern Malaysia, Thailand, Sumatra in Indonesia and other places.

Chinese historians called them “black dwarfs” in the Three Kingdoms period (AD 220 to AD 280) and they were still to be found in China during the Qing dynasty (1644 to 1911). In Taiwan they were called the “Little Black People” and, apart from being diminutive, they were also said to be broad-nosed and dark-skinned with curly hair.
After the Little Black People — and well before waves of Han migrations after 1600 — came the Aboriginal tribes, who are part of the Austronesian race. They are thought to have come from the Malay Archipelago 6,000 years ago at the earliest and around 1,000 years ago at the latest, though theories on Aborigine migration to Taiwan are still hotly debated. Gradually the Little Black People became scarcer, until a point about 100 years ago, when there was just a small group living near the Saisiyat tribe. The story goes that the Little Black People taught the Saisiyat to farm by providing seeds and they used to party together.

“Tribal disputes later lead to warfare”. The Saisiyat killed off by the little Black People over time. Just two Little Black People survived. Before departing eastward, they taught the Saisiyat about their culture and passed down some of their songs, saying if they did not remember their people they would be cursed and their crops would fail.
The Saisiyat kept their promise and have held the Ritual of the Little Black People every year, though they scaled down the ceremonies during the Japanese colonial period (1895 to 1945). Now the ritual is held every two years on the 10th full moon of the lunar calendar, with a big festival once every 10 years. At this time, the Saisiyat are not supposed to fight and they congregate in their ancestral areas of Miaoli and Hsinchu, in the mountains.

“I’ve seen it written of as a celebration, but to me it seemed quite a mournful affair, especially in the way the music came across, which was trancelike, a haunting kind of chant with a series of 10 to 15 songs,” said long-term Taiwan resident Lynn Miles, who has been to the ritual three times and will be going again this year.

“There’s nothing else quite like it in its tone and in its mood. I’ve been to other festivals but this is non-stop.”

Miles said the dances were not set pieces but usually involved holding hands and moving around in a circle, chanting, with those who know the songs doing most of the singing and a shaman figure keeping order.

A spokeswoman at the Council of Indigenous Peoples (under the Executive Yuan) said that those who have “unclean thoughts” have their souls snatched by the spirits of the Little Black People and will pass out until the shaman revives them.

Miles said the shaman seemed to serve a public-order function by chasing off those who were too drunk or out of order.

The ceremonies are held in two places. The ritual began yesterday in Nanchuang Township, Miaoli County, and will carry on there until Monday. Rituals start today in Wufeng Township, Hsinchu County, and will last through tomorrow.

Getting there:

To Wufeng:
Route 122 to Wufeng can be accessed off No. 1 Highway near Toufen.

To Nanchuang:
Take western No. 1 Highway. Near Toufen, take Route 124 toward Sanwan to Nanchuang. Shuttle buses will take visitors to the ritual site at Xiangtian Lake.

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Posted by 하늘호수 at 09:35

1 comment:

  1. JL24 April 2013 at 09:33

    why do people on youtube say Korea is descendants of southeast asia? I find that a CRAZY notion. It's common sense that if any small percentage of similarities in genes exist, it could be through the Chinese. China invaded Korea throughout history, and it's possible that the southeast genes were tranferred by the Chinese during their invasion.

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